Pharmacology and Herbal Supplements for Brain Improvement

The United States Pure Food and Drug Act became law on June 30, 1906. This legislation mandated the federal inspection of meats and banned the sale of adulterated food products and poisonous drugs. In 1938 the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act established the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This agency was given the responsibility for ensuring the safety of food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics and, subsequently, was empowered to assess and verify drug efficacy. Given these and other legislative mandates, a drug candidate must now undergo years of rigorous laboratory animal and human testing before the manufacturer gains FDA approval for sale to the general public.

Hundreds of millions of dollars are needed to cover the costs associated with meeting FDA criteria for a single, new drug product. Among these requirements is detailed information on its chemical and pharmacological properties. Convincing evidence must be submitted that the compound is safe and efficacious at the recommended dose. Side effects and toxicities must be identified, including information on potential interactions with other drugs that may be taken by the patient. The intended use must be defined precisely on the basis of clinical research results. Data are required on the purity and stability of the manufactured product. After a drug is approved, federal inspectors routinely monitor its production and use to ensure product consistency and appropriate marketing.

Given these safeguards, it is not necessary for consumers to be concerned about the safety and effectiveness of prescription or over-the-counter medications. While not all drugs are effective in all patients, and there can be idiosyncratic responses, consumers can reasonably assume that if an FDA approved product is taken as directed it will likely display some efficacy as a treatment for their condition and that they will be alerted to potential side effects. Accurate information on the limitations of use and possible toxic reactions is usually obtained from the health care provider and is readily available in the manufacturer’s description of the product and in other forums.

The situation is different for herbal supplements. Given their growing popularity in the 1980s, Congress needed to decide whether these products should be subject to federal regulations covering foods or drugs. In the United States this resulted in the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. As this legislation defined these products as food supplements, producers are not required to provide proof of safety or any health benefit before offering them for sale. While a statement regarding safety must be submitted to federal authorities, the burden of proof is on the government to raise questions about possible dangers associated with use. If the government registers no objection within a specified period, the product may be sold. Given the lack of regulation and oversight, those selling such products are forbidden to refer to them as drugs and to advertise any therapeutic benefit. To comply with this requirement, product labels often contain a disclaimer indicating it is not to be used to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. As a practical matter, however, broad, misleading claims about the therapeutic benefits of dietary supplements are commonly encountered, especially on the Web.

The number and popularity of these products has continued to expand, with more than $5 billion in sales in the United States in 2009. Because of growing concerns about product contaminations and the quality of the ingredients used to manufacture some supplements, new regulations were enacted in 2003 to allow government inspectors access to company manufacturing records to monitor quality control. However, it cannot be assumed that all herbal product manufacturers routinely undergo such inspection given the number of companies, the fact that many are located abroad, and the shortage of FDA personnel. The absence of federal requirements regarding safety and efficacy, and the minimal manufacturing oversight, leaves the consumer responsible for assessing the potential risks and benefits of these products. Besides a paucity of objective research data, this determination is complicated by the fact that neither the potential user nor the manufacturer can always be sure of the number and type of biologically active constituents in these extracts. This makes it difficult to assess what effect the supplement may have on otherwise healthy individuals, let alone those with a chronic or acute illness, those taking prescription medications, or who are undergoing other kinds of treatments, such as radiation therapy.

When developing new drugs, safety and efficacy issues are addressed by basic and clinical pharmacologists. To this end, pharmacologists consider a number key principles. While this task is simplified when examining a single, purified substance, these same principles can be applied, although to a more limited extent, to plant extracts when deciding whether a product might be of benefit. The information contained in this post is intended to provide a broad overview of these basic pharmacologic principles and to define terms and concepts useful in making an informed judgment about the potential utility of an herbal product. The aim is to help the consumer think like a pharmacologist when considering the possible use of a dietary supplement. Although the quality and quantity of the publicly available research data are limited for these products, an understanding of these principles and terms will enable the consumer to make a more informed decision about the potential value of a particular product.

 

The Brain as a Drug Target – Herbal Supplements

Transmitters are chemicals synthesized in neurons. Two dozen or so chemical substances have been identified as brain neurotransmitters. These agents are the primary means of communication between brain cells. Transmitter vocabulary is limited, however, in that a given agent either enhances or decreases the firing of an adjacent neuron. By affecting the excitability of the neuron, transmitters influence the way the receptive cell modifies the activity of neighboring neurons. In most cases the transmitter is stored in packets, called vesicles, in the nerve terminal (refer to Figure 4.1). When the neuron is stimulated an impulse travels along the axon causing the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic axon terminal membrane, to open, and then to discharge the stored transmitter into the synapse (refer to Figure 4.1). Once released, the transmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to its receptors on the adjacent postsynaptic neuron. Typically, the postsynaptic membrane is located on the dendrites of an adjacent cell. Attachment of the transmitter to its receptor enhances, in the case of excitatory neurotransmitters, or inhibits, in the case of inhibitory neurotransmitters, the activity of the postsynaptic neuron. If the neuron is stimulated, the impulse generated facilitates the release of the neurotransmitter from its axon terminals to transmit a signal, which is either excitatory or inhibitory, to adjacent neurons. By slowing the firing of the receptive neuron, inhibitory transmitters decrease transmitter release from the adjacent cell which, in turn, influences the firing of neighboring neurons. Thus, overall brain activity represents a delicate balance between excitatory and inhibitory transmitters.

Besides being localized on postsynaptic membranes, neurotransmitter receptors may be found on presynaptic terminals. When activated these presynaptic receptors slow the release of a transmitter from that terminal by causing intracellular biochemical changes that reduce vesicular attachment to the membrane. Thus, if an excessive amount of neurotransmitter is being liberated from a presynaptic nerve terminal, some will leak out of the synapse and stimulate the presynaptic receptors, slowing further transmitter release in an attempt to return the system to equilibrium. It is also possible that an axon from a neighboring neuron may synapse with a presynaptic, rather than postsynaptic, membrane. This is referred to as an axo-axonic, as opposed to axo-dendritic, synapse. If there is an axo-axonic interaction the rate of transmitter release from a terminal is regulated not only by the firing rate of that neuron, but also by the activity of an adjacent cell releasing its transmitter onto the presynaptic receptors.

Once a neurotransmitter activates its receptor it is released back into the synapse. Some transmitters are destroyed by metabolizing enzymes located at or near the synapse. Many are also transported back (reuptake) into the presynaptic terminal where they may be metabolized intracellularly or re-stored in vesicles for future use.

The elements involved in synaptic transmission provide many targets for manipulating this process pharmacologically. For example, brain neurotransmitter function can be modified by agents that inhibit the synthesis, metabolism, or storage of neurotransmitters, or their reuptake into the presynaptic terminal. Agents are also known that enhance the release of certain neurotransmitters. Commonly drugs, and possibly natural products, directly interact with neurotransmitter receptors, either activating (agonists) or blocking (antagonists) these sites. Brain neurotransmission is also affected by drugs that interact with neuronal ion channels or ion transporters. The passage of ions across the neuronal membrane is essential for transmitting nerve impulses and for maintaining a healthy intracellular environment. Activation of some receptors can affect ion channel activity or ion transport, thereby modifying cellular excitability and stability. Likewise, chemical agents can modify brain function by attaching directly to these sites.

There are many other potential drug targets in neuronal tissue besides those involved directly with chemical neurotransmission. Included are enzymes, such as kinases and phosphatases, responsible for modifying protein function, and intracellular receptor systems, such as those for certain hormones, which regulate gene expression in the cell nucleus.

The Gifts of Eden – Herbal Supplements for Brain

Adam wasn’t hungry and was apprehensive about the potential consequences of eating the forbidden fruit. He was, however, convinced the plant material could provide benefits beyond its nutritional value. On the one hand, God told him that its consumption would be fatal, while the serpent contended the plant would impart new knowledge. Both were right. After eating the fruit Adam lost his home and immortality, and was made aware of the concepts of good and evil. He would need this new knowledge to survive in the world outside of Eden.

Besides its allegorical importance for Jews, Christians, and Muslims, this biblical account provides lessons for those interested in the therapeutic benefits of herbal supplements, also known as nutritional, dietary, or food supplements. Defined as a product that contains a vitamin, mineral, herb or other botanical, an amino acid, an extract, or any combination of these materials, the United States government considers dietary supplements to be foods rather than drugs. This has significant implications with regard to their regulation and the assurances provided to consumers. Because of this categorization, potential users must obtain on their own objective data about these products. The aim of this website is to provide such information.

The most fundamental question pertaining to dietary supplements is whether there is any evidence that they provide benefits beyond possible nutritional value. Written some 2,500 years ago, the Genesis account of Adam’s introduction to these products indicates that humans have been familiar with the possible mystical and therapeutic powers of plants for quite some time. Moreover, the Old Testament account demonstrates that then, as now, there was uncertainty, and therefore risk, associated with the consumption of plants and plant products for religious, therapeutic, or, as in Adam’s case, educational purposes.

The fruit consumed by Adam is unknown. In Old English, the word “apple” is simply a synonym for fruit. Regardless, when tempted to eat the plant product, Adam was at a distinct disadvantage to today’s consumer. There was no historical record on its possible effects and no scientific data on its safety. Moreover, as the basic principles of pharmacology, the science of drugs, had not yet been established, he was unable to assess these properties himself. Rather, Adam had to rely solely on the word of others.

The constraints experienced by Adam remained for thousands of years until written records were maintained on the medicinal value of plants. More centuries passed before chemists were able to identify, and pharmacologists objectively study, the therapeutically active constituents in plant and animal products. Only during the past century has research revealed the diseases and disorders that are most responsive to these constituents, and to define precisely the appropriate doses to maximize safety and effectiveness in most individuals.

Anecdotal accounts about the potential benefits of dietary supplements have existed for thousands of years. Evidence includes pollen grains found on Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) graves that were from plants lacking showy flowers, such as the yarrow (Achillea millefolium). It is inferred that these plants were placed there not for adornment, but to provide the departed a supply of medications in the afterlife.1 This concept is based, in part, on the fact that many of the plants deposited on Neanderthal gravesites were subsequently described as therapeutics in early medical books, indicating that word of their therapeutic powers was passed on for millennia. For example, yarrow is mentioned in the Assyrian Herbal (800 BC), one of the oldest listings of therapeutically active plant products,2 as well as in the Ebers papyrus (1500 BC) from Egypt. The Greek poet Homer described in The Iliad (800 BC) the use of yarrow to cure wounds, as did the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder in his writings during the first century AD.3

A conservative estimate is that plants have been used as therapeutics at least since the appearance of modern man, some 200,000 years ago. It seems reasonable that as early humans foraged for food they would accidently discover the curative powers of some plants or take note of the fact that consumption of a certain type of seed, root, or fruit produced discernable effects on mood, sensory input, or alleviated general aches and pains. Indeed, as a species, humans are indebted to the many thousands of forgotten ancestors who became ill or died in the process of identifying plants and animals suitable for consumption. Thus, through trial and error, early man was able to identify plants that possess useful medicinal properties.

In addition to using plants to cure disease, they were also consumed in the ongoing quest for immortality. Recipes for “elixirs of life” were described in ancient writings. An example is the Epic of Gilgamesh, the story of a Sumarian hero that was recorded in 2000 BC.4 After many travails, Gilgamesh obtained the plant of immortality from deep in the sea. Unfortunately for Gilgamesh, the plant was subsequently stolen by a serpent. This tale has many of the features of the biblical account of Adam and Eve. In the end, Gilgamesh returned home to Sumer to, like the rest of us, spend the remainder of his days as a mortal, awaiting the inevitable.

As in Genesis, ancient medical texts demonstrate that plant products have been used for therapeutic purposes for millennia. During most of this time no concerted effort was made to understand the reason for their effectiveness, or, in modern terminology, their mechanism of action. The first recorded attempts to synthesize therapeutics were made by European alchemists during the Middle Ages.5 Besides their efforts to transform base metals into gold, the alchemists were interested in what made substances therapeutically useful as they wanted the power to transform basic materials into drugs. They were hindered in this quest, however, by the prevailing theories about the nature of matter and the causes of disease.

From the time of Aristotle to the seventeenth century, the use of plants in European medicine was based on the idea that all nature was composed of four basic elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Disease resulted from an imbalance of bodily humors. It was believed this imbalance could be countered by one or more of the four plant classes—cold, dry, hot, and wet—that corresponded to the four basic elements of nature. Mixtures of plants, usually from the same class, were preferred over a single specimen for treating medical conditions. For example, combinations of “cold” plants were used to treat fevers. Given these theories, drug discovery remained an empirical enterprise for thousands of years, with the identification of active plants and plant products left solely to chance.

 

By the seventeenth century, belief in the Aristotelian four elements was being challenged, most notably by the Irish chemist Robert Boyle.6 Boyle understood that the precise identification and classification of the basic elements of nature were absolutely essential for understanding the universe, including drug actions. Thanks to his efforts, and those of many others, modern chemistry emerged in the nineteenth century. This made it possible to isolate, chemically define, and study the biological responses to plant constituents. As a result of these efforts, drugs were identified in plants that were first discovered by our distant ancestors. Many of these compounds, or their chemical derivatives, are still used today.

Given the historical records, and contemporary scientific data, there is no question that plants produce an abundance of substances that provide benefits beyond their nutritional value. However, not all plant constituents have been isolated and properly tested for effectiveness, and, unlike drugs, there is no government requirement that a manufacturer demonstrate effectiveness before marketing an herbal supplement. Like Adam, the consumer must rely on the word of others about the benefits of these products.

This website is designed to address this issue by providing basic information needed to assess the potential therapeutic value of plant products. Included are fundamental principles of pharmacology and about how drugs and natural products can affect various organs and organ systems. Explanations and examples are provided about what determines whether an ingested substance will find its way into the bloodstream, and then to the targeted site in the body at a concentration sufficient to have a beneficial effect. Other topics include the ways in which natural products may influence the blood levels of other substances, including drugs, and the likelihood that such interactions may diminish the effectiveness of prescription medications or alter normal body chemistry.

While the principles described apply to all dietary supplements and drugs, emphasis is placed on factors that relate especially to herbal supplements purported to influence brain function. Individual posts are devoted to a discussion of selected nutritional supplements that are said to enhance memory, or to aid in the treatment of depression, anxiety, insomnia, and alcoholism. These products were chosen because the promised benefits can be difficult to quantify and are more subject to influence by the power of persuasion than is the case with other therapeutics. This is why the use of such substances has been exploited over the centuries by shamans to maintain their social standing, and by charlatans for monetary gain.

The properties of these products are described in the context of the basic principles of pharmacology and the results of scientific studies, both human and laboratory animal, aimed at determining effectiveness and mechanism of action. The approach taken in objectively evaluating these products can be used by the reader as a guide for assessing the information available on any dietary supplement. This work is intended for those who are curious about the potential benefits and risks associated with the use of food supplements. The information provided will be of particular value for individuals who, like Adam, are interested in how drugs and natural products affect us for good and evil.

Herbal Supplements for Brain -Transforming Plants into Gold

Other prehistoric evidence suggesting the use of plants for medicinal purposes includes the discovery of valerian root in caves inhabited 35,000 years ago by Cro-Magnon.8 As the valerian root grows horizontally along the surface of the ground, it would be easily noticed and harvested for its nutrient and medicinal value.

Best Six Supplements for Fat Loss

There is a great deal of confusion out there about what kinds of supple­ments you should take when trying to increase metabolic efficiency and lose fat. Some people fall victim to every new weight-loss powder, pill, or fad, sometimes spending hundreds of dollars a month on products that might be useless or downright harmful. Others might be taking some of the right supplements but don’t know how much to take or when to take them. With some supplements, timing is everything.

I don’t feel that supplementation should be complicated or overly expensive. When clients sign up for my Fat-Burning tips, I explain to them that they should take supplements in two basic cat­egories if they want to lose fat and improve their health:

A good multivitamin/mineral with antioxidantsSupplements that increase metabolism and effectively burn fat during exercise

I can’t emphasize enough how simply taking a high-quality multivita­min/mineral supplement can help promote general health, a stronger immune system, and good metabolic function. When buying a multivita­min/mineral, always read the label to see what you are getting. Many prod­ucts provide a wide spectrum of nutrients, but I suggest taking one that includes the following:

Nutrient                                                                          Amount

Vitamin A (as beta-carotene)                                                               10,000 IU

Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid)                                                                600 mg

Vitamin D                                                                                                 400 IU

Vitamin E                                                                                                 200 IU

Vitamin K                                                                                                 60 mcg

Thiamin                                                                                                    60 mg

Riboflavin                                                                                                30 mg

Niacin                                                                                                        60 mg

Vitamin B6                                                                                              60 mg

Folic acid                                                                                                  800 mcg

Vitamin B12                                                                                            800 mcg

Biotin                                                                                                        600 mcg

Pantothenic acid                                                                                     100 mg

Calcium (as calcium carbonate and calcium citrate)                      1,000 mg

Iron                                                                                18 mg

Iodine                                                                                                        300 mcg

Magnesium (aspartate or glycenate)                                                  300 mg

Zinc (monomethionine)                                                                         15 mg

Selenium                                                                                                   100 mcg

Copper                                                                                                      1.5 mg

Manganese                                                                                              15 mg

Chromium (as chromium picolinate)                                                  200 mcg

Molybdenum                                                                                           25 mcg

I take the vitamins formulated by Dr. Michael Murray. They are made by a highly respected company called Natural Factors and come in special formulations for men and women. Other leading companies that make excellent multivitamin/mineral supplements are Enzymatic Therapy, NOW, Solaray, and Solgar. The staff at your local health food store will be able to assist you in picking a good brand.

Over the last three decades I have found that certain types of minerals, antioxidants, and amino acids can increase metabolic function and burn fat more efficiently. As part of my Fat-Burning tips, I sug­gest that clients take my Metabolic Fitness Six Fat-Loss Supplements. The supplements described below will not only help you take off the fat, but some of them also improve heart health, improve insulin response, and lower blood pressure and cholesterol.

1.    Calcium. Most people think of calcium as something you should take to minimize bone loss with the onset of andropause or menopause, and indeed this is true. But calcium also has many other health benefits, includ­ing the ability to aid in fat reduction. An article in the Journal of Nutri­tional Biochemistry, which evaluated five clinical studies involving 780 women in their thirties, fifties, and eighties, showed that taking 1,000 mg calcium daily was associated with as much as an 8 kg (17.6 pounds) loss in body weight over four years.
A random analysis of forty-three other studies showed that 1,000 mg calcium a day over a period of two weeks led to a significant reduction in blood pressure. Calcium also lowers serum cholesterol. A recent study conducted on 223 healthy postmenopausal women showed that taking 1,000 mg calcium per day produced a 7 percent increase in HDL and a 6 percent decrease in LDL.

Early in life, taking calcium carbonate is all right because your body is able to readily absorb it. But as you move into your fifties, you should switch over to calcium citrate, which is twice as easy to absorb. You need stomach acid to absorb calcium, and as you get older your levels of stomach acid may drop. This is one of the reasons why taking Tums, which is an acid neutralizer, is not the best way to get your calcium. I suggest taking 1,000 to 1,500 mg calcium citrate with meals, as recommended by your physician.

Since calcium needs vitamin D to be absorbed, make sure you are get­ting 400–600 mg of D daily. Check your multiple vitamin for sufficient levels of vitamin D.

2.    Magnesium. Taking magnesium will greatly enhance the effects of cal­cium. Magnesium is an essential partner in many enzymatic reactions that govern neuromuscular function and the maintenance of cardiovascular tone. Recent studies are beginning to find a correlation between magne­sium and fat loss. People who are obese have very low levels of magne­sium as compared to those with a normal body weight. If you have type 2 diabetes, taking magnesium helps to decrease insulin resistance.
Magnesium has the ability to increase calcium’s effectiveness in low­ering blood pressure and serum cholesterol levels. I suggest taking 450 mg magnesium glycinate or aspartate (not in combination with calcium but as a separate supplement) before bedtime.

If you have a kidney disorder, you may need to check with your doctor before supplementing with magnesium.

3.      Chromium Picolinate. This supplement helps to burn fat because it increases the body’s sensitivity to glucose. I usually recommend that clients take 200 mcg twice daily with a meal while they are on my pro­gram. I usually see the greatest results from this supplement after six weeks. Any good multiple vitamin should include 200 mcg chromium picolinate, so please read your vitamin/mineral label before you take an additional dose. After two months, you can drop down to a 200 mcg main­tenance dose. A study from the University of Vermont also shows that chromium picolinate significantly improves glucose sensitivity in diabet­ics. For this reason, if you have diabetes or are hypoglycemic, speak with your doctor before taking this supplement. This is especially crucial if you are taking insulin, because chromium picolinate could change your body’s insulin requirements.
4.      Coenzyme Q10. Besides being a powerful antioxidant, coenzyme Q10 improves metabolic efficiency and endurance when taken before an exer­cise session, helps to decrease insulin resistance, and doubles your body’s ability to eliminate metabolic toxins. I recommend 50 mg for women and 100 mg for men, which should be taken before cardiovascular exercise or interval training. Taking this supplement with a snack containing fat (like a small handful of nuts or a tablespoon of peanut butter) will help your body to absorb it.
There has been extensive research in the United States and Japan regarding the treatment of cardiovascular disease with coenzyme Q10. Taking this supplement will certainly help to keep your heart healthy. Most recently, coenzyme Q10 has been shown to be effective in treating high-risk breast cancer. Since this supplement is an immune function enhancer, it could also be used to decrease cancer risk.

5.      Acetyl-L-Carnitine. I always use acytyl-L-carnitine in conjunction with coenzyme Q10 because this combination enhances mitochondrial func­tion. I have found that most people who have become overfat are not only insulin resistant and glucose intolerant but have impaired mitochondrial function. In essence, the mitochondria in their cells—the little fat-burning furnaces—are no longer able to work efficiently. When I have women take

500 mg acetyl-L-carnitine and men 1,000 mg, along with their coenzyme Q10, I see a steady increase in metabolic efficiency and exercise en­durance, as well as an increase in fat loss. Take this supplement before aer­obic exercise or interval training.

6. Green Tea Extract. This extract, 200 to 300 mg taken 30 to 45 minutes before a workout, will increase your fat-burning efficiency. A study pub­lished in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showed that “green tea extract has thermogenic properties and promotes fat oxidation beyond that explained by its caffeine content.” Other studies have shown that green tea causes fat loss in three ways:

The catechin polyphenols in green tea inhibit the action of the enzyme in the body that breaks down norepinephrine, extending that hormone’s life in the body as a fat burner.Green tea partially inhibits the action of lipase in the stomach and intestines. Lipase is a soap-like enzyme responsible for changing the fats we eat into a form the body can absorb.Green tea helps insulin to more effectively remove sugar from the bloodstream, keeping blood sugar levels more consistent.

A recent article in Nutrition showed that green tea can protect against gastritis (inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach) and stomach cancer.

There are three other supplements that have been receiving so much atten­tion in the press lately that I would be remiss in not mentioning them here.

The first is alpha-lipoic acid, a powerful antioxidant that is both water and fat soluble. This supplement has been shown to be highly effective in reducing free radicals in the body. Most important, at appropriate doses it has been found to have a significant effect on increasing insulin sensitivity in people suffering from type 2 diabetes.

The second is conjugated linoleic acid. Some studies have shown that this supplement promotes fat loss, preserves and even increases lean muscle, increases bone density, and increases immune function. For these reasons, it has been marketed to bodybuilders as a safe alternative to ster­oids. While the jury is still out on whether this supplement will live up to its initial claims in further clinical trials, I felt it was worth mentioning here.

The third supplement that I recommend for fat loss is omega-3. The latest research shows that getting enough omega-3 in the diet helps decrease body fat and increase lean muscle. I suggest taking 5 g per day either in the form of fish oil capsules, flaxseed oil, and/or as ground flaxseed sprinkled on cereal or a salad.

How Vitamins, Minerals and Other Supplements Can Boost Your Brain to the Max

Whether you are young, old, or in between, taking vit­amin-mineral supplements can improve brain func­tion, possibly boost performance on IQ tests, improve mood and memory, and slash the chances of brain deteri­oration as you get older. Indeed, the evidence is so com­pelling that it seems incredible everyone is not taking vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants to keep their brains functioning at peak levels for a lifetime.

As Dr. Denham Harman, professor emeritus at the Uni­versity of Nebraska, and others demonstrated in animals or humans as long ago as the 1950s, your brain, general health, and longevity are initially shaped long before you are born by the vitamins and antioxidants your mother ingests during pregnancy and even before conception.

A string of studies, many done a decade ago and seemingly lost to public consciousness, have found that giving multi-vitamins and specific vitamin supplements to schoolchild­ren can dramatically increase IQ scores. Research among adults of all ages also finds that certain vitamin and min­eral supplements improve mood, learning ability, memory, attention span, eye-hand coordination, and reaction times, even in people who show no overt signs of deficiency.

Further, mountains of stunning evidence have piled up in the last few years, documenting that middle-aged and older people can stave off intellectual deterioration and even retrieve mental faculties thought lost forever by tak­ing vitamins, particularly antioxidant vitamins and B vita­mins. In one remarkable finding, vitamin E equaled a potent pharmaceutical drug in treating the most dreaded brain disease of all—Alzheimer’s. Vitamins also protect the brains of normal healthy people. A recent random survey of 880 elderly men and women by European researchers showed that those with high vitamin and antioxidant blood levels had stronger intellectual powers, less depression, and less risk of losing their brains to dementia.

Then why isn’t everyone downing vitamin supplements to maximize mental functioning? Since vitamins and min­erals are generally safe in required doses and relatively inexpensive compared with remedies needed to rectify the potential damage to society in health and educational costs of not taking vitamins, why isn’t the practice more wide­spread and medically encouraged?

One reason is conventional nutrition still maintains that the brain is not impaired unless the body is in a state of classic malnutrition, induced only after serious and pro­longed deficiencies. Such malnutrition, characterized by overt physical signs of wasting away and rock bottom blood levels of nutrients, is considered rare in Western countries.

However, more daring researchers argue that the brain is the target of subtle deficiencies that leave it secretly impoverished long before any physical signs of conven­tional malnutrition are noticeable. It’s well known that a wide range of vitamins and minerals are linked to psycho­logical functioning and that many such nutrients are miss­ing in typical high-fat, highly processed diets. “What is adequate to prevent physical signs and symptoms of mal­nutrition may not be adequate to prevent impaired mental function,” says researcher Steven J. Schoenthaler at Cali­fornia State University.

Even the tiniest deficiencies could cause subtle and undetected disruption in psychological functioning, con­tends David Benton, a world-renowned research psycholo­gist at University College in Swansea, Wales. “Cognitive activity,” says Dr. Benton, “involves the summated activity of many billions of neurones, and countless biochemical pathways and their associated enzymes. It may well be that relatively small dietary deficiences that are dismissed as causing only minor changes to the activity of a single enzyme, will along with many other similar minor effects, have a measurable and potentially important cumulative influence on cerebral functioning.”

Much evidence, in fact, raises the specter that modern western society is rife with a pernicious form of “subclin­ical” (symptomless) or “marginal” malnutrition that leaves no obvious traces of brain malfunction. The brain may get enough vitamins and minerals to appear to function “nor­mally.” But is it really operating at optimal levels? Some researchers believe substantial segments of the population do not get nearly the levels of vitamins and minerals needed to optimize brain function. Deterioration in mental func­tion previously attributed to “normal aging,” may, in fact, be at least partly due to subtle undetected and correctable deficiencies of specific vitamins needed by the brain, says Katherine Tucker, associate professor of nutritional epidemiology at Tufts University. “It’s a new and powerful idea,” she says, “with accumulating evidence to support it.”

It seems obvious that the poor-quality, high-fat, low-vitamin diets of many Americans, sadly, including school­children, are inadequate to fuel peak brain performance, and that undernourished brains might perk up when sup­plied vitamin and mineral supplements. In short, our brains quietly survive and endure on poor diets in a permanent state of lethargy that we accept as “normal” because we can’t imagine otherwise. We are unaware that we have the potential to be smarter and feel better—that our brains, when properly nourished, can reach for and achieve more and function at higher levels.

BOTTOM LINE: Vitamins, impressive studies show, can help ensure maximum brain functioning from birth to old age.