Black pepper: The King of Spices – Jumpstarting Digestion and Fighting Cancer

This common condiment has a royal pedigree.

During the Middle Ages, black pepper was considered the “King of Spices”—and it was more valuable than gold. Only the wealthy could afford it, and social status was measured by how much black pepper you had stored away.

To increase its mystery and desirability, Arab traders kept its origins a closely guarded secret, inventing wild tales of perilous searches for the spice in make-believe lands.

And when the Spice Wars—the conflict between nations to dominate the spice trade—intensified during the 15th century, tariffs and taxes drove the price of pepper up 30-fold. That sent Christopher Columbus westward from Spain to discover the land of pepper—and riches for the Queen of Spain.

But Columbus was off course by about 8,000 miles. The “secret” land of pepper was India’s Malabar Coast, where the best-tasting pepper in the world is still grown today.

Pepper, Healer for Millennia

Indian black pepper is considered superior because it’s particularly rich in piperine, the compound that zaps your taste buds and triggers a sneeze when it hits the nerve endings inside your nose.

The Ayurvedic physicians of India—the practitioners of the millennia-old science and art of natural healing native to that country—may not have known about piperine, but they did know about pepper’s curative power. They prescribed black pepper for a variety of everyday and serious conditions, including constipation, diarrhea, insect bites, tooth decay, sunburn, arthritis, heart disease, and lung disease.

When pepper reached China, the spice was incorporated into traditional Chinese medicine—another millennia-old medical tradition—where one text described it as able to “warm the middle, disperse cold . . . while dispelling phlegm . . . and relieving diarrhea.” One Chinese herbal remedy still in use today consists of a dried powder made from one radish—and 99 peppercorns!

In ancient Rome, pepper was more valued for its culinary impact—the Romans loved to season their food with pepper, and they buried meat and other perishable foods under piles of pepper to keep it from spoiling. (That was the first clue that the spice had potent antibacterial powers. Scientist now know that piperine can even inhibit the deadly bacteria that cause botulism.)

When in Rome—or anywhere else in the world—pepper as the Romans peppered. Because pepper is very good for you. Starting the moment you eat it.

Jumpstarting Digestion

Piperine stimulates the taste buds, triggering the pancreas to start producing digestive enzymes. It also tones the lining of the intestines. That boost in digestive power and speed is very helpful:

Speeding up transit time. In a study in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition, gastroenterologists found that 1.5 grams of black pepper (about 1/20 of an ounce) sped up “transit time”—the time it takes for food to move all the way through the digestive tract. Slow transit time has been linked to many GI problems, from constipation to colon cancer. The researchers noted that black pepper “is of clinical importance in the management of various gastrointestinal disorders.”

Enhancing the effectiveness of medications. Pepper helps you digest food better—and metabolize medications faster. In studies on animals and people, researchers have found that piperine can increase the bioavailability of a range of drugs, including antibiotics, beta blockers for high blood pressure, calcium channel blockers for heart disease, cough medicines, and also drugs used to treat arthritis, epilepsy, respiratory problems, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. It works by influencing enzymes in the liver that are active in the metabolism of drugs. “Piperine is exceptional in its influence on the liver drug-metabolizing enzyme system,” concluded a team of Indian researchers in the Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology.

Fighting Cancer

Laboratory studies on animals and on human cells show that piperine may play a role in preventing or treating cancer.

Colon cancer. In the laboratory, researchers in the US found that adding black pepper to a culture of human colon cancer cells produced “significant inhibition” of growth. Regular intake of low doses of black pepper may “offer preventive effects against colon cancer,” concluded the researchers in Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science.

Lung cancer. “Black pepper has been used widely in various systems of traditional medicines,” wrote a team of Indian researchers in Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry—which led them to test the power of pepper against lung cancer. In their animal study, they found that treating lung cancer with piperine changed the level of several enzymes, “which indicated an anti-tumor and anti-cancer effect.”

Breast cancer. A team of Indian researchers found that adding black pepper extracts to the diet of mice with breast cancer increased their lifespan by 65 percent. The findings were in Cancer Letters.

Pepper Your Health

Scientists around the world have discovered many other ways that black pepper may enhance health.

Easing arthritis. Korean researchers tested piperine against arthritis in two ways: they added the black pepper extract to a culture of human rheumatoid arthritis cells, and they fed it to animals with experimentally induced arthritis. In the human cells, piperine reduced compounds known to worsen inflammation, the hallmark of rheumatoid arthritis. In animals, piperine reduced inflammation and other arthritis symptoms. Piperine may have a role as a “dietary supplement for the treatment of arthritis,” the researchers concluded in Arthritis Research & Therapy.

Preventing Alzheimer’s. Researchers in Thailand tested piperine in animals with Alzheimer’s-like brain changes and found the extract “significantly improved memory impairment and neurodegeneration [the destruction of brain cells].”

Better brains. In another study, the same team of researchers found that piperine had “anti-depression-like activity and cognitive-enhancing effect” when fed to laboratory animals. Piperine may “improve brain function,” they concluded.

Helping seniors stand up. Researchers in Japan found that sniffing black pepper oil stabilized the ability to stand (and therefore lowered the risk of falling) in 17 people aged 78 and older. “Olfactory stimulation” with black pepper “may improve postural stability in older adults,” they concluded in the journal Gait and Posture.

Helping with post-stroke swallowing. After a stroke, many people suffer from dysphagia—difficulty swallowing. The same team of Japanese researchers found that sniffing black pepper oil for one minute helped improve the ability to swallow in more than 100 people who had suffered a stroke. “Inhalation of black pepper oil . . . might benefit older post-stroke patients with dysphagia, regardless of their level of consciousness or physical or mental status,” concluded the researchers in the Journal of the American Geriatric Society.

Helping brain-damaged children on feeding tubes. In a third study, the Japanese researchers found that sniffing black pepper oil could stimulate the appetite of neurologically damaged children on feeding tubes, helping them eat more solid foods.

Quitting smoking. Scientists at the Nicotine Research Laboratory in Durham, North Carolina, found that the craving for cigarettes decreased after smokers puffed on a vapor containing black pepper essential oil. “Cigarette substitutes delivering pepper constituents may prove useful in smoking cessation treatment,” they concluded in the journal Drug and Alcohol Dependency.

Lowering high blood pressure. A study by Pakistani researchers in the Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology showed that piperine lowered blood pressure in laboratory animals.

Preventing heart disease. High-fat diets and heart disease go hand in hand. Researchers in India found that laboratory animals fed a high-fat diet and black pepper or piperine had much less oxidation—a crucial step in the process that turns dietary cholesterol into artery-clogging plaque. “Supplementation with black pepper or piperine can reduce high-fat diet induced oxidative stress to the cells,” concluded the researchers.

Healing hyperthyroidism. Indian researchers found that piperine worked as effectively as thyroid medication in treating overactive thyroid in animals.

Protecting hearing. Korean researchers found that piperine protected cells in the cochlea (the sensory organ of hearing in the ear) from chemical damage. Cochlear damage leads to hearing loss.

Reversing vitiligo. In the skin disease vitiligo, a malfunction in pigment-producing cells called melanocytes leads to irregular patches of pale skin. Researchers in the UK found that piperine promotes the growth of melanocytes. “This finding supports the traditional use of [black pepper] in vitiligo,” concluded the researchers in the Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology.

Getting to Know Black Pepper

Like grapes, black pepper grows on perennial vines. But pepper vines soar to a height of 30 feet or more—you can see them trellising swaying palm trees in the state of Kerala on India’s Malabar coast, where black pepper is big business and pepper vines are everywhere.

The vines have large, shiny leaves with spiky extensions called catkins that fill with peppercorns, the fruit of the pepper vine. A catkin full of peppercorns is a twisty stalk densely packed with what looks like shiny beads.

Black pepper grows on vineswith large, shiny leaves.

After peppercorns bud, they gradually turn dark green—the sign that they’re ready to be picked and dried.

As peppercorns dry, the peppercorn’s outer layer (called the pericarp) turns thick, rough, oily, and black. At this point, the peppercorn is pepper—warm, penetrating, full-bodied, with lingering heat.

But not all peppercorns that you find in the market are black.

Green peppercorns (which became all the rage in the 1970s, with the popularity of French nouvelle cuisine) are unripe black peppercorns that have been plunged into boiling water, which inactivates the ripening enzymes and stops them from turning black. They have a fresh, hot bite but are much more subtle than the black. You can eat them whole and still smile!

White peppercorns—also known as white pepper—are black peppercorns with the pericarp removed, revealing a smooth, creamy white center, called the heart. Removing the pericarp is arduous, which is why white peppercorns are considered a gourmet spice, and are more expensive than black. White peppercorn is hotter and sharper than black, but slightly sweet.

Pink peppercorns have been left on the vine, turning from green to yellow to ripened red. Then they’re picked and sold as so-called pink peppercorns. Like white, they’re considered a gourmet spice. They’re aromatic, with a benign and subtle flavor.

Black pepper may help prevent and/or treat:

Alzheimer’s disease

Arthritis, rheumatoid

Cancer

Constipation

Depression

Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)

Falls

Hearing loss

Heart disease

High blood pressure

(hypertension)

Indigestion

Memory loss (age-related, mild cognitive decline)

Neurologically

damaged children

Smoking addiction

Thyroid problems

Vitiligo

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Black pepper pairs well with all spices and complements all recipes, especially those featuring:

Eggs

Game

Red meat

Sauces

Seafood

Piperine is found in all the peppercorns, but it’s most abundant in black pepper. And there’s a lot of black pepper out there.

Next to salt, pepper is the world’s most frequently used spice. It is an ingredient in about 95 percent of recipes, and you can find it on almost every table in America. And no wonder—it offers a “bite” not found in any other spice. Even restaurants that consider salt an insult to the chef will offer pepper, usually freshly ground at tableside.

Indian cuisine makes elaborate use of black peppercorns, but eschews the other colors. Black pepper is a principal ingredient in many of India’s most beloved spice blends, including garam masala and sambaar masala. Black peppercorn is also the key ingredient in baharat, a spice mix used throughout the Middle East.

The French are fond of white pepper, which blends nicely with the many cream-based sauces in their cuisine. They also grind white and black pepper into a blend called mignonette. White pepper is one of the four ingredients in the spice blend quatre épices. But black peppercorns aren’t totally disgracié—they’re often bundled in the bouquet garni found in many kitchens.

In America, black peppercorns are key to fiery Cajun and Creole cooking.

Peppercorns require a warm climate, and most of the black pepper imported into the US comes from Indonesia or Brazil. Other pepper-growing countries include Malaysia, Madagascar, Tasmania, and Vietnam, which recently surpassed India as the world’s largest producer of peppercorn.

Other recipes containing black pepper:

Adobo

Alamelu’s Salt Substitute

All-American Chili con Carne

Baharat

Basic Barbecue Rub

Berbere

Bloody Mary Soup with Jumbo Lump Crabmeat

Boeuf Bourguignon

Caribbean Curry Paste

Chaat Masala

Chesapeake Bay Seafood Seasoning

Chicken Oreganata

Chimichurri Sauce

Cocoa Rub

Coconut Meatballs with Peanut Sauce

Colombo Powder

Dukkah

Garam Masala

Grilled Pork Chile Adobo

Hot Curry Powder

Jamaican Jerk Marinade

La Kama

Madras Curry Paste

Madras Curry Powder

Malaysian Curry Paste

Pickling Spice

Potato Cauliflower Curry

Prawns with Almond Hot Pepper Sauce

Quatre Épices

Roast Chicken with 40 Cloves of Garlic

Rosemary Barbecue Rub

Sambaar Masala

Spiced Milk Tea

Vindaloo Curry Paste

Yucatan Pickled Red Onions

How to Buy Black Pepper

While India is no longer the world’s largest supplier, it still produces the finest quality—90 percent of which is harvested on the Malabar coast, a variety prized for its high content of piperine and other volatile oils.

There are two varieties from this region: Malabar peppercorns (formerly called Alleppy peppercorns) and Tellicherry peppercorns. Of the two, Tellicherry is the superior. The best Tellicherry is labeled TGSEB, which stands for: Tellicherry (place of origin), Garbled (free of grit and inferior berries), Special (the finest quality), and Extra Bold (largest in size). Malabar Garbled No. 1 (MG1) indicates top-grade, cleaned peppercorn.

The American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) also applies its standards to peppercorn. ASTA on a label means that the pepper meets standards of cleanliness, volatile oil content, moisture level, and other technical specifications.

Black pepper comes whole, cracked, or ground.

Your best strategy: buy whole peppercorns and grind them as needed, for the best taste and maximum health benefit. Once pepper is ground, it begins to lose its piperine and other volatile oils. It retains its bite, but loses flavor.

The best black peppercorns are large, with dark brown to jet black rough skin, and a dull patina. A shiny patina indicates inferior quality.

Ground pepper is available as coarse or fine. There’s also an indication of inferior quality in ground pepper—it’s too black. Here’s why:

When peppercorns are harvested and dried, there’s always a percentage that are hollow inside, lacking white hearts. They are referred to as light berries. There’s typically a government-mandated specification that limits the percentage of light berries permitted in a crop, but growers sometimes circumvent the rules. The best ground black pepper is gray, because the entire berry—black pericarp and white core—was ground. Pepper that is too black is an indication that too many light berries were part of the grinding.

White peppercorns are sold whole. The best quality is Montok.

You can purchase green and pink peppercorns either dried or in brine.

The best dried green peppercorns—called late-picked berries—are freeze-dried. They should look full, plump, and bright green. They’re excellent for cooking but shouldn’t be put in a peppermill, as they’re too soft and can clog the mechanism.

Pink peppercorns are the least popular because they have the least flavor. They’re also too soft for a peppermill.

There is also a pink “peppercorn” from Brazil that belongs to the cashew family. It has no relationship to true peppercorns, and isn’t considered particularly useful in cooking. They were banned from the US several years ago because of concern about toxicity, but shipments sometimes make it to store shelves. Be sure the pink peppercorns you buy are Piper nigrum.

Both whole and ground pepper will keep indefinitely, although old ground pepper won’t have much flavor.

Both green and pink peppercorns purchased in brine should be used within two weeks of opening.

There are numerous varieties of black pepper, including popular Chinese Szechwan peppercorns, but they aren’t true pepper. Szechwan pepper has no resemblance in taste to black pepper. Neither makes a satisfactory substitute for the other.

Black Pepper Rice with Almonds

Rice is a staple in Indian cooking, but you’ll never find it plain. The combinations of spices that complement rice are huge. This pepper-rich recipe, compliment of Alamelu Vairavan, author of Healthy South Indian Cooking, is one of my favorites.

1 cup basmati or extra long-grain rice

1 tablespoon canola oil

3 curry leaves (optional)

1 small dried red chile

1 teaspoon black mustard seeds

1 teaspoon cumin seed

1 cup chopped onions

1½ teaspoons freshly ground black pepper

½ teaspoon ground cumin

1 teaspoon salt

¼ cup sliced almonds

1. Cook rice according to package directions, but omit using salt or oil. Cool rice for about an hour. Stir so the grains do not stick together.

2. Heat the oil in a wok or large skillet over medium-high heat. When the oil is hot, but not smoking, add the curry leaves and red chile. Add the mustard and cumin seeds. Cover and heat until the mustard seeds pop, about 30 seconds.

3. Add the onions and cook for one minute. Add the cooked rice and stir well. Add black pepper, ground cumin, and salt and mix well. Stir in the almonds and serve.

Makes 4 servings.

In the Kitchen with Black Pepper

Black pepper is the most useful and indispensable of all culinary spices. When faced with a plate of uninspiring food, the judicious grind of a peppermill can salvage a meal.

The robust flavor of black pepper is most closely associated with strong-flavored food. Apply it liberally to red meat, game, seafood, beans, and lentils. Use it lightly on more delicate food.

But you can put black pepper on anything, even fruit. Berries, apples, pears, and even cheese take well to a grind of fresh black pepper. Use black pepper to flavor soups, stews, fish, and poultry.

Keep white peppercorns on hand for those times you want to give a dish a pepper bite without an overpowering pepper fragrance.

And you should always add pepper to liquids and sauces at the last minute. If added early in cooking, it loses its aromatic fragrance and can leave a bitterness that is hard to erase.

Keep black peppercorns in a metal, plastic, or glass peppermill, not wood. Wood will leach pepper of its volatile oils.

Here are a few ways to get more black pepper into your diet:

• Rub coarsely ground peppercorns into red meats before grilling, roasting, or braising. Don’t be timid. It can take a lot.

• Add whole peppercorns to marinades, stocks, and dishes being pickled.

• Slice strawberries over watercress and sprinkle generously with black pepper. Dress lightly with a balsamic vinaigrette.

• Add cracked pepper to homemade salad dressing.

• Keep a peppermill, rather than a shaker of already ground pepper, on your table.